SXJEEL

Agriculture RC

40 min read

Vocab

  • Agroforestry
  • Agro-climatic
  • Biological soil fertility
  • Contour lines
  • Cropping intensity: Gross area sown/net area sown
  • Conservation Agriculture (CA)
  • Geospatial data
  • Intercropping
  • Integrated farming systems
  • Leaching
  • Leguminous
  • Manure and fertilizers
  • Nitrogen fixing
  • Organic farming
  • Productivity of land and labour
  • Precision agriculture techniques
  • Permaculture
  • Subsistence farming
  • Sustainable agriculture
  • Yields and stability
  • Zero budget natural farming (ZBNF)
  • Primary Agricultural Credit Societies (PACS)
  • Vermicompost
  • Mulching: layer of material applied to surface of soil for preventing soil moisture, improving fertility, reducing weed growth.
  • Introduction
    • As per PLFS, 1% agricultural growth is 2 times more effective in poverty alleviation as compared to 1 % growth in non-agricultural sectors.
  • Significance
    • Employ about around 55% of the population
    • Agricultural exports were valued at around $53 billion in 2022-23. [APEDA]
    • Cultural : Festivals like Baisakhi, Pongal, and Makar Sankranti are centered around harvest seasons.
    • Food security
  • Major component of Agriculture Sector
    • Crop Production
      • Food Grains: Staples like rice, wheat, maize, and millets.
      • Commercial Crops: Cash crops like cotton, jute, sugarcane, tea, and coffee.
    • Horticulture
      • Fruits and Vegetables: Diverse range including mangoes, bananas, and tomatoes.
        • Fruits: Mangoes, bananas, oranges, and apples are major fruits.
        • Vegetables: Potatoes, tomatoes, onions, and brinjals.
      • Floriculture: Cultivation of flowers for commercial use.
    • Animal Husbandry
      • Livestock Production: Dairy, poultry, and meat production.
      • Fisheries: Marine and inland fish production.
    • Forestry
      • Timber and Non-Timber Products: Provides wood, bamboo, and medicinal plants.
    • Agro-processing
  • Problems with Indian agriculture - Economic | Environmental | Financial | Governance | Technological
    • Small and fragmented land holdings
      • Example: Average farm size in India is about 1.15 hectares
    • Low Agricultural Productivity
      • poor irrigation, outdated farming techniques, and inadequate use of technology
    • Inadequate Irrigation and Water Management
      • only around 48.5% of the net sown area is irrigated
    • Low Mechanization
      • Mechanization - 50% (OCED - 90%)(NABARD)
    • Indebtedness and Limited availability of affordable credit
      • population 86% but get only 50% of all loans disbursed
    • Overuse of chemicals and fertilizers leading to
      • soil degradation
        • Example: Nearly 30% of India’s land area is undergoing degradation. - UNCCD
        • Skewed N/P/K
        • Soil Organic Carbon (SOC) - 0.5% for more then 60% land ( ideally - 1.5-2% as per World Food Laureate)
      • Create import dependency : India spent $6.5 billion to import 10.2 million tonnes of urea in FY22.
    • Adverse effects of climate change on crop yields and farming practices
    • Disguised unemployment
      • 55% workforce and 18% of GDP
    • Poor economic outcomes
      • Avg income of farm households- 10k per month -NSO
    • Lack of proper land records
    • Lack of private sector investment
      • only 2.4% of total investment in Agri sector
    • Inadequate Infrastructure
      • Transportation networks, power shortages, and inadequate logistics and storage facilities
      • Example: Post-harvest losses account for 10-20% of total production.
    • Scarcity of technology
      • Only 5% households have tractor and 0.2% have harvester -NABARD
    • Issues with marketing of agriculture products
      • Cartelization by APMC’s
    • Lack of diversification of crops
      • 80% for wheat, rice, sugarcane
    • Lack of certified seeds
      • more than 50% seeds not certified. If done, it may improve the productivity by 25% -min of agriculture
    • Excessive ground water extraction
      • 90% of all water used in agriculture
  • Solution
    • Diversification [ASHOK GULATI]
      • dairy farming, poultry, horticulture, livestock rearing and aquaculture.
      • Mission for Integrated Development of Horticulture
    • Irrigation coverage
      • Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana (PMKSY)
    • Unified agriculture market
      • Over 500 mandis online on National Agriculture Market (e-NAM)
    • Crop insurance
      • About 58 crore farmer applications enrolled under Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana (PMFBY)
    • Precision agriculture refers to the use of advanced technologies and data analytics.
      • Rashtriya Krishi Vigyan Yojana (RKVY)
    • Promoting soil health management.
      • Over 23 crore Soil Health Cards issued by 2023.
    • Promoting sustainable farming
      • National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA)
      • Organic farming - Target to cover 2 lakh hectares under Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojana (PKVY)
    • Credit support
      • Credit guarantee fund - NABARD
      • Kisan Credit Card (KCC) Scheme
    • Sustainable use of fertilizers
      • PM PRANAM
    • Income support to farmers
      • Pradhan Mantri Kisan Samman Nidhi Scheme (PM-KISAN)
    • Leveraging information technology
      • Farmer’s Portal of India
      • Digi stack (Budget 2023)
    • Export promotion
      • Agri Export Policy 2018 targets to reach $100 Billion in next few years [ASHOK DALWAI committee]
    • Financing infrastructure projects.
      • Example: Rs. 1 lakh crore fund for post-harvest infrastructure through Agriculture Infrastructure Fund (AIF)
    • Promoting food processing industries
      • PM Kisan Sampada Yojna (PMKSY) targets to leverage investment of Rs. 11000 crore benefitting about 28 lakh farmers and generating 5.5 lakh direct/indirect employment.
  • Conclusion
    • We should promote culture of sustainability which would result into evergreen revolution -MS SWAMINATHAN
  • ASHOK DALWAI Committee to improve resource use and efficiency at mission mode so that our agriculture can compete at international level
  • Article 48 states that State shall endeavour for organisation of agriculture and animal husbandry on scientific lines.

Major Crops

  • Food grains
    • Cereals - 54 per cent of total cropped area in India.
      • Fine grains -
        • Rice - tropical zone, kharif Agriculture
        • Wheat - temperate zone, rabi Agriculture
        • Reasons for success
          • HYV seeds : IR-8 rice and HD-2967 wheat varieties
          • Irrigation infrastructure : Bhakra Nangal and Indira Gandhi canals facilitated irrigation in Punjab, Haryana, and Rajasthan.
          • Policy support - MSP
          • Fertilizers and pesticide use : Fertilizer consumption in Punjab rose from 37 kg/ha in 1970 to over 200 kg/ha by 2000.
          • Farm mechanization :
          • Agro-climatic suitability : fertile alluvial soil and suitable temperatures
          • Institutional measures - land reforms, tenancy reforms, cooperative farming
          • Technology - micro irrigation
          • Demand - food preference
        • Issues with rice and wheat system
          • Soil Degradation
          • Overextraction of groundwater
          • Stubble burning - air pollution and environmental degradation
          • Fiscal challenge - MSP procurement
          • Pest and Disease vulnerability
          • Overuse of chemical fertilizers, pesticides - import dependency
        • Way forward
          • Crop diversification : pulses, oilseeds, and vegetable
          • ARVIND SUBRAMANIAN committee Agriculture
          • Sustainable Agricultural Practices : zero-tillage, crop rotation, and organic farming.
          • Efficient micro-irrigation systems
          • Agricultural marketing reforms
          • Soil Health Restoration : cover crops, green manuring, natural amendments
          • Integrated Pest Management (IPM) : biopesticides, pheromone traps, and natural predators
          • Strong forward and backward linkages
          • Food processing, FMCG
          • Changing MSP Policy - millets
    • Coarse grains : Millets - The coarse cereals together occupy about 16.50 per cent.
      • India produces 40% of world’s millets (largest producer and 2nd largest exporter)
      • Historical evidence of consumption of millets by Indus valley people
      • Jowar(MH, kharif), Ragi, Bajra(RAJ), Maize(KA, MP)
      • Black soil, Red soil, Arid Soil Agriculture
    • Advantages
      • Of Production
        • Climate smart grains - draught, excessive rainfall
        • Income security
        • Crop diversification
        • Sustainable agriculture
          • Very less water, less fertile soil and warm and arid regions, shorter growing season of 70-100 days
        • Less energy consumption
        • Dual purpose - food and fodder
        • Improve soil quality
      • Of consumption
        • Hidden hunger - Nutri-cereals - 7-12 % Protein, 15-20% dietary fibers
        • Reduces risk of heart disease, diabetes, obesity, gluten free, anaemia (57% women anaemic)
    • Challenges
      • low-yield per hectare
      • Digestive issue - high fibre - bloating, gas, constipation
      • Low glycaemic index
    • Don’t eat millets
      • Thyroid issues - millets creates issues iodine absorption
      • Gluten sensitivity
    • Way Forward | Government Initiatives
      • Budgetary support to make India a global hub for ‘Shree Anna’ (millets)
      • Long term measure
        • Attitudinal and behavioral changes of consumers
      • Short term measures
        • More Procurement of millets under NFSA, 2013
        • Poshan 2.0 - millets rich mid day meal
      • Increase farmer income
        • Tejaswi programme of MP - increased farmers income 10 times
      • PDS, MSP, Awareness, Promotion
    • Conclusion
      • SDG 2
    • Pulses - Pulses occupy about 11 per cent of the total cropped area in the country.
      • Chickpea (Gram), Pigeon Pea (Tur/Arhar), Lentils
      • Gram, tur(arhar), Groundnut (India produce 18.8 per cent of world, kharif in north, GJ, RAJ)
      • India is world’s largest producer of Pulses - 25% of world
      • legume crops - nitrogen fixing
      • Pulses development scheme
  • Oilseeds - 2.5 per cent of total cropped area in the country (RAJ, HAR, MP)
    • 60% import dependence
    • Groundnut, Rapeseed, Mustard, Palm
      • Rai, sarson, toria, taramira
      • frost sensitive crops
    • Soybean and sunflower (MP,MH)
    • Government initiatives
      • Mission Oil Palm
  • Fibre crops
    • Cotton (Kharif, Tropical, needs clear sky during flowing period) - 4.7 per cent of total cropped.
    • Jute Agriculture
  • Other crops
    • Sugarcane (tropical, UP, MH, GJ)
      • India is largest producer of sugar in world Agriculture
    • Tea - 21.22 per cent of total production in the world.
    • Coffee (arabica, Robusta and Liberica, Karnataka largest producer)
      • India produces more Robusta since last decade. Agriculture
    • Rubber
      • Kerala accounts for 67%. others - Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Assam and the other North Eastern States
    • Silk
      • India produce all the 5 types of commercial verities of silk
        • Mulberry
        • Oak tussar & tropical tussar
        • Muga
        • Eri
  • Threats to crops -
    • Pests
    • Disease
    • Weeds
  • Development
    • High yielding varieties of seeds, chemical fertilisers, pesticides and farm machinery.
  • Government schemes
    • (PM-AASHA) Scheme
    • Integrated scheme of Oilseeds, Pulses, Oil Palm and Maize (ISOPOM)
    • National Food Security Mission
  • National Horticulture Mission (NHM)
    • Boosting Production
      • Expansion of area under cultivation of horticultural crops
      • Introduction and promotion of high-yielding and disease-resistant varieties.
      • diversification of crops
      • training and capacity-building programs for farmers
    • Improving Productivity
      • Adoption of advanced horticultural techniques such as drip irrigation, mulching, and protected cultivation
      • integrated nutrient and pest management
      • development of infrastructure such as nurseries, cold storage, and processing units.
      • Horticulture crop research
    • Increasing Farmers’ Income
      • Facilitated market linkages to sale produce
      • value addition through processing and packaging
      • export of high-value horticultural produce
      • Alternative income source throughout year
    • Limitation to consider
      • Uneven benefits - small farmers don’t have capital and capacity to invest
      • Market fluctuation lead to price volatility
  • Advantages of organic farming
    • Ecological
      • Soil Health Improvement through the use of compost, green manure, and crop rotation.
      • Biodiversity Conservation by eliminating synthetic pesticides and fertilizers
      • Preventing water pollution by preventing chemical runoff
      • Increasing carbon sequestration in soil
      • prevent land degradation and desertification
      • Enhanced ecosystem services like nutrient cycling
    • Economic
      • Premium pricing increasing farmers’ income.
      • Reducing input cost on pesticides and fertilizers
      • Eco-tourism
      • Export Opportunities
      • Employment Generation : Organic farming practices are labor-intensive
  • Challenges
  • Conclusion
    • SDG #2
    • ASHOK GULATI
  • Direct Seeding Method
    • Seeds are directly drilled into the fields. There is no nursery preparation or transplantation involved in this method.
    • Requires laser levelling of land and one pre-sowing irrigation.
    • Advantages
      • 15% of Water Conservation
      • Labour Efficiency (transplanting of saplings from nursery is no more required)
      • Time, Yield, Soil Health मस्त
    • Challenges
      • Weed Management
      • Vulnerability to Climate Extremes
      • Initial Learning Curve
      • High seed requirement
      • Compulsory land levelling

Cropping patterns

  • Cropping pattern is defined as the spatial distribution of crops that are being produced in an area in a given sequence of time.
  • Importance of Cropping Pattern
  • Issues in Cropping Patterns
    • Rice-Wheat dominance system
    • Monoculture
    • Neglect of coarse grains
      • E.g. 16.5%
    • Less diversification
  • Types of Cropping Pattern Agriculture
  • Cropping practice
    • Monocropping -
      • Practice of growing one crop species in a field at a time - Agriculture
        • Widely used in commercial agriculture
        • Continuous monoculture -> monocropping : growing same crop year after year
    • Intercropping Agriculture
      • Two complimentary crops simultaneously
    • Crop Rotation - different crops in a sequential order
    • Strip Cropping - different crops in alternate strips
      • retain soil moisture, prevent runoff, and improve soil structure.
    • Relay Cropping - planting a second crop in a field before the first crop is harvested
    • Mixed Cropping: different crops simultaneously without any distinct row patterns or arrangement
    • Mixed farming : a system of farming which involves the growing of crops as well as the raising of livestock.
    • Agroforestry
    • Shelterbelts and Windbreaks - rows of trees planted along the edges of fields
      • reduce wind erosion, microclimatic benefits.
  • Reasons Why Cropping Pattern Differ
    • Biophysical factors - Climatic, edaphic, topographic, biotic
    • Socio-economic - market demand, profitability, labour availability
    • Technological - availability of seed, fertilizers, pesticides, mechanization
    • Policy and institutional - subsidies and price support, infrastructure, credit availability
  • Factors Influencing Cropping Pattern
  • Long-Run Effects of Current Trends in Cropping Pattern
  • Emerging Trends in Cropping Pattern
    • Shift to High-Value Crops : fruits, vegetables, and dairy
    • Climate-Resilient Farming like growing millets
    • Emphasis on Pulses and oilseeds:
    • Organic Farming
      • MP emerged as highest producer of organic farming products
    • Agroforestry Practices
    • Precision Agriculture
    • Adaption Biotechnology and GM Crops
      • Bt cotton - 95% cotton area, nano-urea
    • Zero-Budget Natural Farming (ZBNF)
    • Sustainable Farming Practices like crop rotation, mixed farming, agroforestry
    • Integrated Pest Management (IPM)
    • Water-Smart Agriculture
    • Tapping in export potential : basmati rice, spices, and fruits
  • Government policies
    • MIDH (Mission for Integrated Development of Horticulture)
    • National Food Security Mission
    • National Mission on Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA)
  • Difference
Zero-Budget Natural Farming (ZBNF)Organic Farming
No reliance on purchased inputsAllows certain natural inputs
Emphasise on Soil health and indigenous knowledgeEcological balance and third-party certification
Low cost and high profitabilityCan be more expensive, but may fetch higher market prices
Primarily focused on local marketsMay target premium organic market
Diverse crop rotation and intercropping
  • Integrated Farming system
    • Is a holistic approach to farming involving farm activities like cropping, livestock rearing, poultry farming, fishery, forestry and other allied activities in a synergistic manner.
    • Significance
      • Diversification of income:
      • Efficient resource utilization - with optimal use of farm resources like water, feed, and fertilizer Agriculture
      • Food and nutrition security : vegetables, milk, and eggs produced
      • Soil health : Integration of legumes and millets
      • Risk mitigation
      • Environmental sustainability
      • Rural employment and entrepreneurship
      • Reduce Agriculture distress
      • Controlling migration
      • Lower Input Costs
    • Challenges
      • initial investment
      • Knowledge and training
      • Market access
    • Case studies
      • Sikkim’s Organic Mission:
      • Kuttanad : rice-fish farming system
      • Andhra Pradesh’s Zero Budget Natural Farming (ZBNF) : crop diversification, natural manure
  • Crop diversification
    • Crop diversification refers to the practice of cultivating a variety of crops
    • Present Challenges
      • Economic Viability : farmers prefer rice and wheat for higher market value
      • Lack of robust market linkages and storage facilities for diversified crops.
        • Inadequate cold storage for horticultural products
      • limited knowledge and awareness in farmers
      • Limited access to credit for investing in new crops
      • Limited farm mechanization and technologies supporting diverse crops
      • Policy barriers : Minimum Support Price (MSP) and FRP benefits few crops
  • Opportunities Provided by Emerging Technologies
    • Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology: can provide high-yielding and resilient crop varieties
      • GM mustard
    • Remote Sensing and GIS: planning and monitoring of diversified crop areas.
    • Vertical and Hydroponic Farming : allow cultivation with minimal water use.
    • Precision Agriculture: data analytics, IoT, and GPS can help to optimize crop selection
    • Artificial Intelligence (AI) : identifying disease, pest and nutrient deficiencies
    • Mobile apps and internet : real-time market information, weather forecasts
    • Drones : efficient planting, pesticide and fertilizer application
    • Agroforestry Systems : help in integrating crops with livestock and silviculture
  • Way forward
    • ASHOK DALWAI Committee recommendation to encourage livestock enterprises
  • Rainbow revolution - MS SWAMINATHAN

Irrigation System

  • Introduction
    • Irrigation is the artificial application of water to the soil to assist in the growing of crops.
  • According to Water Resources Assessment Report by Ministry of Jal Shakti -
    • 67 % of total irrigation is groundwater based.
      • Atal Bhujal Yojana (Atal Jal) - to improve ground water management
    • 20% of irrigated area is covered under micro irrigation
    • 54% population faces high water stress - NITI Aayog
    • (Water Stress पूछे तो इसका उल्टा कर दो)
  • Type of irrigation schemes
    • Major - > 10000 hectares
    • Medium : 2000 to 10000 hectares
    • Minor : < 2000 hectares
  • Sources of Irrigation
    • Rainfed
    • Irrigated
  • Types of irrigation system
    • Surface
      • Flood Irrigation
      • Furrow Irrigation : Water flows in small channels between the crop rows.
    • Sub-surface
      • Basin and Perforated Pipe Systems
    • Sprinkler - save 40% water vis-a-vis flood irrigation
      • Or Drip irrigation - save 75%
    • Micro-irrigation : refers to the delivery of water directly to the root zone of plants through drips or sprinkler
      • Features
        • Using emitters, sprinklers and drips
        • Low volume of water
        • Low pressure, high frequency
      • Advantage
        • Water Use Efficiency : reducing loss through evaporation and runoff
        • Increased crop yield:
          • efficiently delivery of water and nutrients
          • Ideal moisture level in the root zone
        • Automation, Flexibility and precision - control the flow rate, duration, and frequency of irrigation
        • Reduced energy consumption
        • Soil health and erosion control - reduce salinization, alkalisation
        • Reduce fertilizer usage
          • Reduce runoff and eutrophication
          • Fertilizer subsidies about 6500 crore rupees
        • Reduce weeds and pests
        • Prevent waterlogging
        • Compatible with sustainable practices
          • Organic farming, natural farming
        • Turns water intensive to water effective crops
          • Sugarcane, rice etc.
    • Issues
      • Limited irrigation coverage
      • Financial and technical constraints
      • Regional variation
      • Limited awareness and training about benefits and maintenance
  • Choosing an Irrigation System
  • Problems Associated with Irrigation
    • Intrusive irrigation
  • Progress of Irrigation Under Five Year Plans
  • Environmental Effects of Irrigation
    • Irrigation system storage
    • Extensive irrigation
    • Watershed Development
    • Warebandi system
  • Irrigation System Storage
    • Surface Storage Systems :
      • Reservoirs and Dams
    • Traditional
      • Tanks and Ponds
    • Groundwater Storage
      • Aquifers and Wells
    • Rainwater Harvesting
      • Farm Ponds and Rooftop Harvesting
    • Check Dams and Percolation Tanks
  • Importance of efficient irrigation and storage system
    • Maximizing crop yields
    • Draught mitigation
    • Climate resilience
    • Sustainable agriculture
  • Need for Systemic Irrigation Reforms | Measures
    • Rainwater Harvesting :
      • SWAMINATHAN committee
    • Recycling grey water
    • Water Storage Infrastructure development
    • Modernize Irrigation Systems
      • Drip irrigation, sprinkler irrigation
    • Improve Canal Networks: interlinking of rivers
    • Revive traditional water conservation methods
      • E.g. step wells (Gujarat), Tankas (Rajasthan)
    • Crop diversification and rotation :
      • “Sahi Fasal” campaign
      • Millets
    • Public awareness
      • Jal Shakti Abhiyan: Catch the Rain (JSA:CTR)
    • Technology -
      • soil moisture sensors, GIS systems, precision agriculture
      • IoT sensors and automated systems for precise irrigation.
      • Solar pumps [PM KUSUM]
    • Legal and regulatory measures - promote water conservation, prevent over-extraction.
    • Awareness and training
      • E.g. Apna taalab abhiyan
      • Jal Shakti Abhiyan
      • Nal se Jal
    • Subsidies and financial incentives
    • Research and development
    • Policy
      • National Water Policy
    • Community based governance
      • E.g. Hiware Bazaar Model
  • Government Initiatives
    • Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojna (PMKSY) target to cover 10 million hectares.
    • National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA)
    • Atal Bhujal Yojana
    • Jal Shakti Abhiyan
  • Conclusion
    • MIHIR SHAH Committee recommendation on watershed development can be implemented.
      • National water commission Agriculture

E-Technology in the aid of farmers

  • Introduction
  • Precision Agriculture
    • Use GPS, IoT, and data analytics in field mapping and soil health monitoring
    • Variable Rate Technology (VRT) for fertilizers and pesticides application based on specific field conditions
  • Remote Sensing and GIS in yield estimation and real time crop monitoring
  • Mobile Applications and Platforms
    • E-Marketing Platforms like E-NAM
    • Weather Forecasting Apps
      • IMD’s Meghdoot app
    • Advisory Services on best practices, pest control and crop management
    • Digital literacy programs for farmers.
    • MOOCs and online courses on modern agricultural practices.
      • Example : AgriPathshala
    • Online farmer communities
  • Internet of Things (IoT) and Smart Farming
    • IoT enabled Automated Irrigation Systems
    • Smart Sensors for monitoring soil moisture, temperature, crop health
    • Wearable sensors for cattle
  • Data Analytics and Big Data
    • Crop Yield Forecasting
    • Supply Chain Optimization
  • Information technology
    • Kisan Call Centres
    • Agri-Tech Start-ups
    • Kisan Credit Card (KCC), Direct Benefit Transfer (DBT)
  • Supply Chain Management Systems:
    • Streamline logistics and reduce post-harvest losses.
  • Online Training and Capacity Building:
    • Educate on modern farming practices
  • Digital Payment Systems:
    • Facilitate secure and prompt transactions between farmers and buyers.
  • E-Commerce platform : to reach wider customer base
  • Agri tech Startups
    • Farmers Fresh Zone and DeHaat - marketing
    • NinjaCart; AgriBazaar - D2C
    • Skymet - advisory
    • EM3 Agri Services - mechanization
    • KrishiHub offer soil testing kit
  • Liquid Nano Urea - Introduced by IFFCO
  • Biotechnology and genetic engineering
    • Genetically modified (GM) crops - enhanced yield, pest resistance, nutritional content, draught tolerant, better seed quality
      • E.g. Bt Cotton, GM Mustard
    • Reduced Input Costs: reducing need for chemical pesticides and fertilizers -> savings and sustainability
      • E.g. Nano Urea
    • Enhanced Crop Quality - Increased shelf life, enhanced nutritional value, and better taste.
    • Improved Storage and Shelf-Life
    • Higher Market Value : e.g. High-protein maize varieties
    • Stress-Tolerant Crops: -
    • Improved Soil Health : e.g. application of azotobacter bio-fertilizer
    • Access to International Markets - producing desired crops
      • E.g. export of Bt cotton
  • Issues
    • Herbicide Resistance:
      • lead to the development of superweeds and increased herbicide use
    • Impact on biodiversity and ecosystem balance
    • Impact on Non-target Organisms
      • horizontal gene transfer to wild plants or microorganisms
    • Long-term Effects
  • Digital Platforms and E-commerce
    • farmer-to-consumer interactions
  • Drone
    • Irrigation, monitoring crop health, planting, crop spraying, soil analysis
  • Artificial intelligence
    • Precision Agriculture:
      • data analytics
      • valuable insights on soil health, crop growth, and irrigation needs.
      • data-driven decisions
    • Crop Monitoring and Disease Detection
    • Smart Irrigation:
      • precisely schedule irrigation
    • Crop Yield Prediction
      • real-time data on weather patterns, soil conditions, crop growth,
      • farmers plan their harvesting, storage, and marketing activities
    • Farm Automation
    • Market Intelligence:
      • price trends, demand patterns, and consumer preferences.
      • crop selection, timing of sales, and marketing strategies. -> maximise their profits
    • Farm Management Systems
      • track farm inputs, monitor livestock, manage inventory,
  • National Strategy for AI - Agriculture priority
  • Robotics
    • Detection of weeds
  • IOT based sensor networks
  • Geospatial Knowledge Infrastructure (GKI)
    • In agriculture
      • Precision farming - Precision farming combines the power of artificial intelligence (AI), Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS), and Big Data.
      • This data later helps in Crop scouting, Soil sampling, Weed location, accurate planting, and harvesting. (SWAH)
      • Better crop forecasting
      • Better implementation and risk assessment
        • PM Fasal Bima Yojana
      • Increased Landholding size: Along with the SWAMITVA scheme by Land pooling.
    • In allied sectors
      • Fisheries - PM Matsay Sampada Yojana
        • Enhanced fish production of 22 million metric tons.
        • Increase of contribution of Gross Value Added (GVA) of fisheries sector to agriculture GVA to 9%.
        • Reduction of post-harvest losses to about 10% (currently 25%)
  • Dairy
  • Minor Forest Produce
  • Revolutions
    • Green Revolution - HYV seeds, fertilizers, pesticides.
    • White Revolution - operation flood
    • Blue Revolution - fisheries, aquaculture, marine products
    • Golden Revolution - fruits, honey, horticulture crops
      • E.g. bananas, mangos, coconut, spices.
    • Yellow Revolution - Oilseed - mustard, sesame etc.
  • Measures
    • Agriculture accelerator fund to boost agritech startups.
    • Digital Agriculture Mission (DAM) initiative
  • Introduction
    • Indian agriculture has expanded significantly since the country’s independence. However, though, the need is to create a competitive marketing systems and efficient transportation infrastructure.
  • The marketing of agricultural products in India involves several processes from production to consumer delivery.
  • Broadly categorized into upstream (production and supply chain) and downstream (distribution and sales) activities.
  • Process of Agricultural Marketing - Marketing Channels, Functionaries, Costs, etc.
    • Agricultural marketing is a process that involves the assembling, storage, processing, transportation, packaging, grading and distribution of different agricultural commodities across the country.
  • Role of FCI
  • Regulated Markets
  • Warehousing
    • E-NWR
  • Cooperative Marketing
  • Shortcomings of Current Agricultural Marketing Process
  • APMCs (Agricultural Produce & Livestock Market Committee)
  • National Agricultural Market (NAM)
  • Farmer Producer Organisations (FPO)
    • Advantages
      • enhance their bargaining power
      • leverage economies of scale
      • reduction in cost of production
      • enhancing farmers’ incomes through aggregation of their agricultural produce
  • Contract Farming
  • Futures Trading in Agricultural Commodities
  • Main Constraints in Transportation
    • Inadequate Infrastructure : Poor road connectivity,
    • Lack of Cold Chain Facilities : lead to high post-harvest losses
    • Fragmented Supply Chains : multiple intermediaries between farm and market raise costs and reduce efficiency.
    • High Transportation Costs: constitute up to 25% of the total cost reduce competitiveness
    • limited Access to Advanced Technology : GPS tracking systems for monitoring
    • Bureaucratic Delays : time-consuming procedures at check-posts and toll gates
  • Main Constraints in Marketing
    • Market Infrastructure Deficiency : poorly maintained market yards and mandis without basic facilities like grading, sorting, and storage.
    • Middlemen domination
    • Fragmented and Regulated Markets : farmers restricted to sell in APMCs
    • Information Asymmetry: leads to high price volatility and lack of transparency in price discovery
    • Monopolistic Practices : cartelization of APMCs - skipping the auction route
    • inadequate digital infrastructure (leads to delay in processing of applications and payment failures).
  • Bottlenecks in Upstream and downstream process of marketing
    • Upstream
      • Poor Quality of Inputs : substandard seeds, fertilizers, and pesticides
      • Fragmented land holding : Average farm size in India is about 1.15 hectares
        • Difficult to achieve economies of scale
        • Low efficiency
      • Lack of Institutional credit
        • E.g. NABARD - only 60% take institutional credit
      • Poor logistics and transportation infrastructure
      • Lack of storage Infrastructure:
        • E.g. warehouses, cold chains, irrigation systems.
        • 30% of fruits and vegetables perish due to lack of cold storage. [NABARD]
      • Policy constraints : Subsidies and MSP focus predominantly on rice and wheat leading to imbalance
      • Extreme climate events
        • E.g. heatwaves, frequent flooding, draughts
      • Low Adoption of Technology:
        • E.g. lack of GIS, remote sensing, drones
      • Seasonal Imbalances
        • E.g. prices of tomatoes, onions, lime etc.
    • Downstream
      • Fragmented markets
        • E.g. Divided in APMC’s
      • Middlemen domination
      • Lack of standardization in quality and grading.
        • Only 50% farmers use certified seeds - MoA
      • Market Infrastructure Deficiencies - overcrowded and poorly maintained mandis
      • Price volatility and lack of information affects farmers income
      • Limited Export Opportunities
      • Cartelization of markets
        • APMC agents manipulate price
        • Lack of transparency in price discovery
      • Inefficient Distribution Networks
        • delays, spoilage, and higher costs
      • Limited Processing and Value Addition
        • Leads to wastage and post-harvest losses
      • Regulatory and Policy Constraints:
        • MSP, minimum export prices, and quality standards prevents exports.
      • Lack of Direct Marketing Channels to consumers
        • Farmers’ markets (Raithu Bazaars) are very few
      • Protectionism and trade wars limit exports
        • USA, EU, imposing tariffs barriers
      • Changing food demands
        • E.g. organic food, low carb diets
      • Lack of awareness
        • E.g. eNAM, market demand, prices, and best agricultural practices
  • Role of E-commerce in overcoming this bottlenecks
    • Improved Market Access
      • E.g. customers in both urban and rural areas.
    • Efficient and streamlined process
      • E.g. online ordering, inventory management, and order fulfilment
    • Real-Time Data and Analytics
      • helps in demand forecasting, inventory optimization, and decision-making
      • Better supply chain management
    • Direct-to-Customer
      • Bypass middlemen’s , win-win for both farmer’s and consumers
    • Improved Logistics and Delivery
      • E-commerce focuses on last-mile delivery capabilities
    • Transparent pricing, product information, and customer reviews
  • Role of supermarkets in supply chain management
    • Direct Procurement from farmers and FPOs
    • Strict quality controls
    • Advanced logistics and supply chain management systems
    • Sophisticated inventory management systems
    • Engage in value addition by cleaning, sorting, grading, and packaging produce
    • Advanced tracking and traceability systems used by supermarkets
  • How they Eliminating Intermediaries:
    • Direct Sourcing Agreements
    • Contract Farming:
    • In-House Distribution Centers
    • Digital Platforms and e-marketplaces
    • Price Stability and timely payments to farmers
  • Way forward
    • Agricultural Marketing Infrastructure scheme
    • market information and intelligence
      • Research and Information Network (MRIN), Agmarknet
    • Digital Public Infrastructure in agriculture
    • Direct marketing channels (Krishi Udaan, Agri-Export Policy, GrAMs).
    • National Mission on Seeds
    • Promoting contract farming (Model Contract Farming Act)
    • Mandi reform measures (model APLM Act 2017)
    • Agri-Tech Solutions and Digital Marketing:
      • AgriBazaar and DeHaat platforms
    • Agricultural Export Policy (2018)
  • 3L - Land leasing, land records, land titles
  • GI Tagging
  • Centralized database for better policy and planning
  • Cooperative marketing
  • ASHOK DALWAI committee
    • National Agricultural Market (NAM)
    • Private sector participation
    • Model agriculture produce and livestock marketing act
    • Promote FPO’s ( minimum target - 12000)
  • Conclusion
    • Reforms in transporting and marketing are much needed to increase the farmer’s income and achieving sustainable development goals (e.g. 1,8,10,12)

Subsidies

  • Introduction
    • Subsidies are transfer payments from the government where there is no exchange of goods and services in return.
  • Agricultural Pricing Policy
  • Types of Subsidies
    • Issues
    • Direct Subsidies : financial support
      • Minimum support price (MSP)
      • Fertilizer subsidy
      • DBT Schemes like PM-KISAN
      • Crop insurance - PMFBY
      • Irrigation subsidies : PMKSY; PM KUSUM
    • Indirect Subsidies : cost reduction
      • Power subsidies
      • Public irrigation infrastructure: Government investment in dams, canals benefits farmers
      • Public Distribution System (PDS)
      • Tax exemptions: Income from agriculture
      • Subsidized agricultural credit: Farmers get loans at concessional interest rates
  • Fertilizer subsidies
    • Urea subsidy
    • Nutrient based subsidy for NPKS percentages - for DAP, MOP
  • Rationale for Subsidies
    • Prevents distress selling
    • Incentivize production
    • Ensure minimum farmer’s income
    • Safety net for small and marginal farmers
      • E.g. cyclic shocks like extreme climate, covid-19
  • Problems of subsidies
    • Financial burden on government
    • Promotion of Monoculture
      • Cereal centric - E.g. rice due to cheap electricity and MSP in Punjab
    • Overuse of resources
      • Fertilizers and pesticides causing pollution
    • Disincentivise technological adaption
    • Resource diversion towards one time benefits
    • Opportunity cost
      • Inhibits capital formation in agriculture sector
    • Increase wastage
    • Power subsidies
      • Increased carbon footprint
    • Distort market prices
    • WTO Compliance Issues
  • Clash with WTO Agreements
    • Market Distortion : price support measures like MSP are considered under Amber Box
    • Public stockholding program : contested for distorting international trade
    • Lack of transparency: WTO seeks clearer documentation and reporting of all agricultural subsidies
    • Breach of De Minimis Limits
  • India’s Arguments
    • Development needs: crucial for supporting small farmers and ensuring food security for a large population.
    • Developed countries’ subsidies : high levels of support provided by developed countries as well.
    • De minimis provisions : India claims its subsidies fall within permissible limits under WTO rules.
    • find a balance between development needs and fair trade practices.
  • Advantages of DBT
    • Reduces leakages and diversions
    • Eliminate duplication and inclusion error
    • Ability to make choices based on needs and preferences
      • Promote competition and efficiency in market
    • Reduction in Administrative Costs
    • Financial Inclusion
      • E.g. Jan Dhan Accounts
    • Data-Driven Decision Making
      • Evidence-based policy-making, program evaluation, and targeted interventions
    • Reduction of Market Distortions
  • Recommendations
    • Targeted Subsidies
    • Promote Sustainable Practices
      • Example: Incentivizing organic farming and water-efficient crops.
    • Gradual reduction of subsidies while promoting market-based pricing mechanisms.
  • Government Initiatives -
    • PM AASHA Scheme - aaya aanadata sanrakshan abhiyan
      • Price support schemes
      • Price deficiency payment scheme
      • Private procurement and stockiest scheme
  • Conclusion
    • Increasing farmer’s income …

MSP

  • Introduction
    • MSP is a government policy designed to ensure farmers a guaranteed price for their crops, providing them with a safety net against fluctuating market prices.
  • Cabinet committee on economic affairs notifies chaired by PM at the start of the sowing season for specific crops.
  • Need for MSP
    • Protecting farmers from price volatility
    • Improving farmers’ livelihood
  • Issues
    • Regional Disparities
      • Example: Punjab and Haryana dominate MSP procurement, whereas states like Bihar and Odisha see minimal MSP operations.
    • Procurement Challenges
      • Insufficient warehousing and transport facilities
      • Delays in payment to farmers
    • Market Distortion
      • Price distortion leading to artificial inflation of certain crop prices.
      • Disincentive for Quality Improvement
    • Environmental Impact
      • Over-extraction of groundwater due to extensive rice and sugarcane cultivation
      • Disincentivizing diversification
      • Soil degradation
    • Economic Implications
      • Fiscal burden on government exchequer
      • Opportunity cost
        • Capital investment and rural infrastructure
        • Research and development, modern technology has taken back seat.
    • Social and Equity Concerns
      • Impact on consumers : High MSPs are inflationary
      • Larger farmers with better access benefit more
        • Only 6% of Indian farmers have benefitted from MSP- NSSO 70th round
      • Middleman domination
  • How it will rescue farmers from low income trap
    • Safety net against price fluctuation
    • Guarantee for procurement of produce
    • Protects against Speculative and hoarding market practices
    • Encourage farmers to adapt to new technology and crop production
    • Provides minimum assured income
    • Reduce their reliance on informal credit sources
    • provide greater bargaining power while selling in open market
    • protecting the interests of small and marginal farmers
  • Recommendation for improvement
    • Expanding range of crops and equitable regional distribution
      • Example: Including more pulses and oilseed
    • Improving storage and transportation infrastructure
    • Promoting Sustainable Practices
      • Example: linking MSP to water-efficient crops and organic farming practices.
    • Reducing Middlemen Influence
      • Example: Encouraging farmer producer organizations (FPOs)
    • Continuous Assessment
      • Example: Independent audits and feedback mechanisms to improve MSP schemes.
  • Way forward
    • Price deficiency payment system
      • Pradhan Mantri Annadata Aay Sanrakshan Abhiyan (PM-AASHA).
    • Diversification in procurement
      • E.g. Millets
    • APMC Infrastructure development
      • (e-NAM)
  • Conclusion
    • RAMESH CHAND Committee - include social criteria’s and long term plan in determining MSP Agriculture

Public Distribution System, Objectives, Functioning, Limitations, Revamping

  • Introduction
    • Public Distribution System (PDS) is a government-led initiative in India aimed at ensuring food security by distributing subsidized food and non-food items to the poor.
    • India’s Public distribution is the largest food security programme in the world. It covers nearly 92% of population and costs close to 1.4% of national income.
  • Objectives
    • Food Security
    • Price Stability
    • Poverty Alleviation
    • Nutritional Security
    • Emergency Relief
  • Functioning - Fair Price Shops, FCI, Ration Cards, Aadhar Linking, etc. - PSTD
    • Procurement
      • Centralized Procurement: Government agencies like Food Corporation of India (FCI) procure.
      • Issues
        • Purchase is highly cereal centric - wheat, rice are purchased
        • Not available throughout the country
      • Way forward
        • More decentralized procurement
        • Promote Farmers produce organization(FPOs)
        • eNAM - national agriculture market
    • Stocking and Storage
      • Issues
        • Lack of proper warehousing
      • Way forward
        • Negotiable Warehouse Receipt (NWR) System
        • Public - private partnership
    • Transport
      • Issues
        • High Logistical Cost
        • Lack of Rural Infrastructure
      • Way forward
        • GPS Tracking
        • Computerized warehouses
    • Distribution
      • Issues
        • Only 50% fair price shops (FPS) have e-POS machine
      • Way forward
        • Digitization of ration card using Aadhar
        • DBT in PDS system
        • Home delivery
    • Targeting Beneficiaries
      • Ration Card
        • categorized into APL, BPL, and Antyodaya Anna Yojana (AAY) cards.
  • Challenges Associated with PDS
    • Procurement
      • Crop concentration - rice and wheat
      • Quality Issues
        • Complaints about low-quality or adulterated food grains
        • Poor grain quality, inadequate weight, and improper packaging
    • Storage
      • Inadequate infrastructure - warehouses
    • Transportation
      • Inefficient Supply Chain Management (PSTD)
      • High logistics cost
    • Distribution
      • Targeting
        • Inclusion and exclusion errors
        • lack of updated data - last census 2011 - leads to inaccurate targeting
      • Leakages and Corruption
        • illegal sale, pilferage, middlemen’s
      • Lack of awareness
        • about their entitlements, prices, and distribution schedules
    • Financial sustainability:
      • Rising subsidy costs
        • E.g. 4.22 lakh crore revised estimates
  • Measures to Improve the Loopholes & Lacunae’s Associated with PDS
    • Implementation of Direct Benefit Transfer (DBT)
    • End-to-End Computerization
      • Example: e-PDS initiatives
      • E.g. MP model of GPS tracking of delivery
    • Biometric Authentication
      • Aadhaar seeding in PDS
      • Periodic reviews : to eliminate duplication, improve targeting, and enhance transparency.
    • Social Audits and Transparency Portals to address leakages and corruption
      • Online Depot system - to bring all FCI godowns online, check leakages
    • Regular Quality Checks
      • Example: strong quality control mechanisms
    • Enhancing Operational Efficiency:
      • Improving infrastructure - Upgrading storage facilities and transportation networks
    • Grievance Redressal Mechanism
      • Example: Helplines, mobile apps, and grievance redressal forum
    • Awareness campaigns to educate beneficiaries about their rights, entitlements, and the functioning of the PDS.
    • Targeted subsidies : based on vulnerability to poverty
    • Strengthening Institutional Capacities -
      • Building the capacity of PDS officials
      • instituting stringent penalties for corruption
  • Government initiatives
  • Salient Features of the National Food Security Act, 2013:
    • Provides a legal right to food
    • Coverage : covers 75% of the rural population and 50% of the urban population
      • Over 800 million people covered
    • Entitlement : 5 kg of food grains per person per month at subsidized rates.
    • Subsidized Food Grain : rice at ₹3 per kg, wheat at ₹2 per kg, and coarse grains at ₹1 per kg.
    • Targeted Public Distribution System (TPDS) : eliminate leakages and improve efficiency
    • Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) program : provide nutritious meals to children
    • Maternity Benefit : ₹6,000 as maternity benefit for pregnant women and lactating mothers.
      • Pradhan Mantri Matru Vandana Yojana
    • Transparency and Accountability : mandate social audit and public display of records of PDS
    • Empowerment of Women : eldest woman in the household is issued ration card
  • Way forward
    • SHANTA KUMAR committee recommendations
      • DBT
      • Geo tagging
      • Digitization Agriculture
  • Conclusion
    • With around 16.5% population below poverty line (MPI - UNDP), effective PDS is sine qua non for ensuring food security.

Issue of Buffer Stock and Food Security

  • Buffer stock refers to the reserve of food grains maintained by the government to ensure food security and stabilize prices.
  • Food security
    • Availability, accessibility, affordability, nutrition, food safety, sustainability, equity
  • Importance of Buffer Stock
    • Stabilize food grain prices by controlling supply
    • Provide emergency relief during natural disasters
    • Ensures consistent supply of food grains for PDS
    • Supports food security initiatives
      • Example: Mid-Day Meal and Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS)
  • Issues Related to Buffer Stock Management
    • Overstocking leads to wastage
    • Financial Burden: Maintaining large buffer stocks incurs high storage and maintenance costs.
    • Insufficient modern storage facilities
    • Inefficient handling and management practices
    • Leakages and Diversion
      • Example : Reports of PDS being siphoned off to the black market.
    • Poor Quality Control
  • Need for Food Security
    • Basic Human Right
    • Preventing Malnutrition
    • Productive Workforce
    • Reducing Poverty
    • Supporting Farmers
  • Challenges to Food Security
    • Increasing Demand due to population growth
    • Climate Change reducing crop yields and crop failure
    • Urban-rural divide in access to nutritious food
    • Overuse of natural resources threatens sustainable agriculture.
    • Inefficient supply chains lead to significant food wastage.
    • Price fluctuations in food prices can lead to affordability issues.
  • Impact of Government Procurement & Distribution
  • NFSM And other Food Security Related Government Initiatives
  • Measures
    • Comprehensive Agricultural Reforms:
      • Organic farming, crop diversification, and conservation agriculture.
      • Irrigation
      • Land pooling and cooperative farming
    • Technological Innovations
      • Example: Precision farming, drip irrigation, and genetically modified crops.
    • Strengthening Public Distribution Systems
    • Social Safety Nets
      • Example: PM POSHAN, NFSA 2013
    • Community Participation
      • Example: Engaging Farmer producer organizations (FPOs) and self-help groups (SHGs) in rural India.
    • International Cooperation
      • Example: FAO Programs
    • Entrepreneurship
    • Localized Food processing
  • Fisheries
    • Contribute 1.09% and over 6.72% to the country’s GDP and agricultural GDP respectively.
    • Pradhan Mantri Matsya Sampada Yojana
    • Fish Farmers Development Agencies (FFDAs)
    • National Marine Fisheries Action Plan (NMFAP)
    • State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture (SOFIA) by FAO
    • Blue Revolution
    • Fisheries and Aquaculture Infrastructure Development Fund (FIDF)
  • Poultry

Technology Missions

  • Technology Missions are focused initiatives aimed at enhancing agricultural productivity, sustainability, and profitability through the integration of advanced technologies.
  • National Mission on Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA)
    • Soil Health Card Scheme
    • Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchai Yojana (PMKSY)
  • National Food Security Mission (NFSM)
    • Input Management: Distribution of high-quality seeds and fertilizers.
    • Integrated Pest Management: Use of bio-pesticides and traditional practices.
  • National Horticulture Mission (NHM)
  • Mission for Integrated Development of Horticulture (MIDH)
  • National Mission on Agricultural Extension and Technology (NMAET)
    • Kisan Call Centers (KCC)
    • Mobile apps like mKisan
  • National Mission on Oilseeds and Oil Palm (NMOOP)
  • SIR M. VISVESVARAYA and Water Engineering:
    • Irrigation Expertise
      • Krishna Raja Sagara Dam, Karnataka
    • Flood Control systems
      • Musi river, Hyderabad
    • Block System of Irrigation
    • Industrial Water Supply Schemes
    • Water storage and irrigation projects for arid regions of Deccan Plateau
    • Advocated for engineering education
    • Hydropower generation
      • E.g. Shivasundaram Karnataka
  • DR. M. S. SWAMINATHAN and Agricultural Science:
    • Green Revolution
    • High-Yielding Varieties
      • E.g. Wheat
    • Food fortification
      • E.g. Vitamin A and Zinc
    • Crop Improvement
    • Sustainable Agriculture
    • Agricultural research : M. S. SWAMINATHAN Research Foundation (MSSRF)
    • Biotechnology Advancement
    • Farmers’ Welfare
    • Evergreen revolution
  • Revolutions
    • White - Milk and milk products
    • Yellow - Oil seeds
    • Blue - Marine products
    • Golden - Honey , fruits
    • Golden Fiber - Jute
    • Silver - Cotton
    • Pink - poultry and Meat
    • Brown - cocoa
    • Grey - fertilizers

Economics of Animal Rearing

  • Introduction
    • Livestock sector plays an important role in Indian economy. It contribute 4.11% of GDP and 25.6% of total Agriculture GDP.
  • Growing at 13% CAGR from 2014-15
  • Animal rearing, or animal husbandry, involves the breeding and raising of livestock for various purposes, including meat, milk, fibre, eggs, and labour.
  • Economic Importance of Animal Rearing
    • significant source of income for farmers
    • generates employment opportunities in rural areas
      • Example: creating jobs in breeding, feeding, and processing.
    • Vital for food security
      • Example : milk, meat, eggs - important dietary component
    • Supports crop farming through manure
  • Potential
    • India has 56.7% of the world’s buffaloes, 12.5% cattle, 2.4% camel
    • India accounts for 20 percent of the world’s livestock population. Agriculture
  • Women - 70% of the workforce engaged in the livestock sector. [NABARD]
  • Issues | Challenges
    • High Input cost in fodder and veterinary services
    • Nutritional Deficiencies : Shortage of feed and fodder leads to malnutrition and shunted growth
      • 35% deficit in green fodder and a 10% deficit in dry fodder
    • Resource constraints : 2.3% of the land area of the world to maintain nearly 10.7% of global livestock.
    • Animal Health: Increased susceptibility to communicable diseases
      • Example: Avian influenza outbreaks
    • Low productivity
      • Annual milk yield of Indian cow is only about 50% of the global average.
    • Inadequate Infrastructure
      • like cold chain storage facilities, dairy processing units, meat processing plants, etc.
    • Unorganized Markets: leads to high price fluctuations and exploitation of farmers.
    • Limited Extension Services
      • veterinary services, farmer training
    • Climate Change Impact like heat stress, flooding and diseases
  • Measures for promoting
    • Promoting breeding programmes
      • Establishing breed improvement centres
      • National Artificial Insemination Programme
    • Nutritional Initiatives : balanced feed rations
      • Fodder and Feed Development Program
    • Vaccination and Disease Control:
      • Lumpi Provac, Goat Pox vaccine
    • Market Reforms
    • Technological Advancements
    • Raising Awareness in farmer’s
      • On modern livestock rearing practices, animal health, nutrition, and breeding techniques.
    • Access to institutional Credit
      • SHG’s, Specialized loan schemes, microfinance options
      • Credit Guarantee Scheme under AHIDF
    • Animal Healthcare Services
      • well-equipped veterinary clinics, mobile veterinary units
      • vaccinations, disease control programs, and preventive care
    • Fodder Development
      • Encourage production of millets
      • Ensure adequate nutrition for livestock
    • Formation of Farmer Producer Organizations (FPOs)
      • Cooperatives like Amul
      • Provide collective bargaining
    • Entrepreneurship (National Livestock Mission, Dairy Entrepreneurship Development Scheme)
    • climate-smart livestock practices
      • Punganur cows; biogas generation; agrosilvi-pastoral systems
  • Skill Development and Training
  • Value Chain Integration
  • Policy Support and Institutional Reforms
    • National Livestock Mission (NLM)
  • Technology Adoption
    • digital platforms, mobile applications, and smart farming technologies
    • data-driven decision-making
  • Way Forward
    • Integrated Farming Systems
    • Waste Management
      • Example: Biogas production from cattle dung for renewable energy.
    • Promoting organic methods of livestock rearing
      • E.g. using natural feed
  • Government initiatives
    • National Livestock Mission
    • Rashtriya Gokul Mission
    • National Programme for Dairy Development (NPDD)
    • National Cattle and Buffalo Breeding Project
    • Credit Guarantee Scheme for Livestock Sector
      • The trust worth Rs. 750 crores established
      • Interest subvention of 3%.
      • Loans up to 90% of the total project cost
    • Animal Husbandry Infrastructure Development Fund (AHIDF)
  • Conclusion
    • Farmer’s income, SDG (1,3,8,10,12)

Food Processing

  • Introduction
    • Food processing means transformation agricultural products into consumable food items or ingredients
      • E.g. wheat to biscuit
    • contribution to GDP (10.5 % to manufacturing and 11.5 % to agriculture sector)
  • According to FAO, The Indian food processing sector is projected to grow at around 7.6% CAGR until 2030.
  • 13.7% employment in unorganized sector.
  • Data
    • India is 2nd largest producer of agriculture and allied sectors products. However there are untapped market in secondary and tertiary food processing.
    • Only 10% of India’s food is processed.
    • Accounts for 32% of the country’s total food market.
    • Contributes
      • 14% of Gross Value Added (GVA) in industries
      • 6% of total industrial investment.
  • Scope & Potential in India
    • Diverse Agro-Climatic Conditions: allow cultivation of a wide range of crops.
    • Large Consumer Market: with over 1.4 billion people and increasing urbanization
    • Export Potential: due to cost-effective production.
      • Contribute 13% of India’s exports which can increase significantly
    • Value Addition : Conversion of fruits into juices, purees, and dried forms.
    • Employment generation :
      • Can generate 9 million jobs (ASSOCHAM)
  • Significance
    • Reduction of Post-Harvest Losses:
      • 1/3 of global food gets wasted - World Resources Institute (WRI)
    • Employment Generation
      • E.g. in processing, packaging, logistics, and marketing sectors.
      • SAMPADA scheme - 5.6 lakh jobs (ES 2020)
    • Crop diversification
    • Improve productivity of agriculture sector
      • E.g. Adopting modern agricultural practices, technologies
    • Food Security
      • Reducing wastage
      • Preserve the shelf life of perishable food produce
        • For e.g. Frozen peas/ corn
    • Export potential
      • For e.g. Indian Basmati rice, spices, marine products, meat, and ready-to-eat meals.
    • Rural Development
      • reduces rural-urban migration
    • Social impact
      • Empowers local communities, particularly women.
      • Curb distress migration
    • Health and Nutrition benefits
      • fortifying foods, promote healthy food choices for consumers
    • Technology Adoption
      • modern machinery, processing techniques, and packaging technologies
    • Drives Research and innovation in agriculture
      • E.g. biotechnology
    • Consumer Convenience
      • Ready to Eat (RTE) and Ready Serve (RTS) Food
    • Support for Allied Industries:
      • stimulates growth in packaging, logistics, and refrigeration industries.
  • Opportunities
    • Growing market
      • E.g. largest population, growing middle class
    • Increasing Urbanization and Changing Lifestyles
      • Greater preference for convenience foods, processed snacks, and packaged meals.
    • Rising Health Consciousness
      • demand for healthier food options, organic and natural products
    • Government Initiatives and Support
      • Pradhan Mantri Kisan Sampada Yojana, Make in India, and Ease of Doing Business
    • Export Potential: due to strong emphasis and increasing FTAs
      • Merchandise Exports from India Scheme (MEIS)
  • Challenges | reasons for poor acceptance
    • Inadequate Infrastructure
      • Lack of Cold chains, and processing unit, preservation techniques
      • logistics, transportation, storage, and quality control
    • Fragmented supply chains due to lack of integration between producers and processing units
    • Raw Material Quality and Availability
      • Seasonal variations, fluctuations in yield
    • Fragmented unorganized nature of industry
    • Poor marketing
    • Lack of innovation in introducing new products to meet evolving consumer preferences
    • Quality Control:
      • contamination risks, at farm level, policy and regulatory level
    • Lack of institutional credit
    • Lack of standardization
      • FPO mark - food safety and standards act, 2006 - होना चाहिए
    • Informalization of the sector
      • 75% unorganized sector
    • Shelf Life and Preservation
    • Regulatory Compliance
      • Food safety clearances; labour laws
    • Supply Chain Efficiency
      • timely delivery, and optimizing inventory management.
  • How food processing can increase farmer’s income
    • Value addition
      • Converting tomatoes to ketchup
    • Reduce post harvest losses
      • 30% post harvest losses - NABARD
    • Contract Farming ensure assured prices and market for farmers.
      • ITC’s e-Choupal initiative
    • Access to Better Inputs : like seeds, fertilizers, and technical know-how from food processing companies
      • PepsiCo’s contract farming for potatoes
    • Price stability : by creating demand for processed good enable stable income for farmers
  • Measures | Government policy and initiatives
    • Pradhan Mantri Kisan SAMPADA Yojana (PMKSY):
    • Mega food parks scheme : 42 mega food parks across India established
    • 100% Foreign Direct Investment (FDI):
    • PM Formalization of Micro Food Processing Enterprise Scheme (PMFME)
    • Agro processing clusters
    • Agri Export Zones
    • Promoting farmer producer organizations(FPO), SHG, cooperatives
    • Enable microenterprise
    • PPP with MNC’s like Cadbury, Dabur, ITC.
    • कृषि सम्मान Awards
  • Way forward
    • Align SEZs and Food Parks
    • Supply chain management
      • Promotion of agricultural markets (mandis) for procurement
      • Integrated Cold Chain, Value Addition and Preservation Infrastructure.
      • Subsidizing infrastructure development, tax benefits
    • SURJIT BHALLA committee recommendation of standardization and internationalization of food processing. Agriculture
  • Conclusion
    • Food processing has potential to solve the key challenges faced by India. Considering it’s importance there is need for reform and proactive policies.

Land Reforms

  • Land Reforms
  • Introduction
    • Land reform refers to changes associated with redistribution of land to ensure social justice enhancing agricultural productivity
  • Rationale for Land Reforms
    • Reducing inequality
      • Income, vocation and security to Landless, poor and marginal farmers
    • Improving agricultural productivity
      • Food security
    • Promoting social justice
  • Types of Land Reforms - R-Rtz-SC
    • Abolition of Zamindari
    • Tenancy Reforms - security of tenure, fair rents
    • Land Ceiling on land holdings
    • Redistribution of land
    • Cooperative farming
    • Regulation of rent
  • Needed one
    • Consolidation of Land holdings
    • Updating Land Records
  • (a) abolition of intermediaries like zamindars, jagirdars, inamdars, etc; (b) tenancy reforms like security of tenure, fair rents, etc; (c) imposition of ceilings on land holdings; (d) distribution of surplus land among the landless labourers; and (e) cooperative farming.
  • Problems in Implementation of Land Reforms
    • Resistance from powerful landowners
    • Difficulties in implementation : due to lack of political will, administrative capacity
    • Incomplete and Inaccurate Records
    • Fragmented Landholdings:
  • Success of Land Reforms
    • West Bengal
    • Kerela
  • Positive Impact of Land Reforms
    • Tenancy reforms increased income and prevented arbitrary eviction
      • E.g. 1 crore tenants got ownership rights in Assam, WB, Kerela
    • Land redistribution
      • Economic - investment, mechanization
      • Social - protect farmer’s from getting debt ridden, reduce farmer’s suicides.
    • Land Ceiling led to redistribution among landless farmers.
    • Ownership encouraged investment in land increasing productivity
    • Land ownership facilitated access to institutional credit
    • Joint titling provided women with land rights
    • Social justice : dismantled traditional feudal structure
    • Social mobility : Ownership enhanced social status
    • Cooperative farming reduced input cost increasing efficiency
    • increased political awareness and participation
    • Access to credit and insurance
    • Improved land use planning and resource management
  • Arguments for land ceiling
    • Redistributing land to smaller farmers increase cultivation intensity and productivity per hectare
    • Reduces Inequality
  • Arguments against
    • Discourages investment in modern infrastructure and technology
    • Implementation challenges in enforcing land ceilings
    • land fragmentation
  • Way forward
    • Comprehensive Surveys and Record Updates:
    • Invest in robust digital infrastructure
    • Integration of technologies like blockchain for tamper-proof record-keeping and GIS for precise mapping
    • Agriculture friendly land reforms
    • Model Land Leasing Act, 2016
  • Government initiatives
    • The Agricultural Land (Ceiling and Holding) Act of 1960
    • State Abolition of Intermediaries Act
    • Tenancy Acts
    • The Bhoodan Movement : under leadership of ACHARYA VINOBA BHAVE
  • Recent Initiatives -
    • Land Leasing, Land Acquisition, Rehabilitation & Resettlement Act, etc.
    • Model agriculture land leasing act
  • Role of Blockchain technology
    • Real-time traceability and transparency
    • Data integrity
  • Digital India Land Records Modernisation Programme (DILRMP)
    • Creates an audit trail and tamper-proof records
    • Components
      • Unique Land Parcel Identification Number (ULPIN)
      • National Generic Document Registry System (NGDRS)
  • Bhu-Naksha
  • Survey of Villages Abadi & Mapping with Improvised Technology in Village Areas (SVAMITVA) Scheme
  • Bhoomi Project (Karnataka)
  • J.C. KUMARAAPA Committee
    • Abolition of intermediaries
    • Land consolidation
    • Land redistribution and land ceiling
    • Tenancy reforms Agriculture

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